Weed alert - Watsonia

It is the time of year when the roadside weed, Watsonia or Bugle Lily, is in full bloom.

Watsonia is a native to southern Africa. There are about 70 species worldwide. The one we have in our district is most likely Watsonia meriana. It is a garden escapee that has become well-established around the country. One of its first introductions was to a private garden in Adelaide in 1842. It appears as a listed plant in the Melbourne Botanic Gardens in 1859.

The species forms dense colonies in roadside localities and disturbed bushland sites, particularly in wet areas. Watsonia has exceptional capacity to reproduce both from seed and vegetatively.

Some references suggest it can be toxic to stock. Native wildlife certainly appears to avoid it. The main issue with Watsonia is that in natural bushland sites, the dense colonies crowd out any native plants in the vicinity.

Control of Watsonia can be difficult if not done with proper follow up procedures. Watsonia is a declared noxious weed in Baw Baw Shire.

 

 

Latham's Snipe

A recent bird survey at the Drouin Waste Water Treatment Plant in Settlement Rd, conducted by members of the Friends of Drouin’s Trees, resulted in the sighting of a pair of Latham’s Snipe, Gallinago hardwickii.

John Latham was an early English ornithologist whose work coincided with the explorations of James Cook. ‘Gallinago’ is from the Latin for ‘resembling a hen-like bird’. Charles Browne Hardwicke was an English naval lieutenant who settled in Tasmania. He was a horse-racing enthusiast and farmer whose connection with the bird is tenuous – its thought that he probably shot it frequently.

Record of Victorian sightings. Credit: Birdata

Latham’s Snipe is a cryptic migrant from Japan. It breeds in Japan and Eastern Russia during our winter and migrates to Australia via the East Asian–Australasian Flyway, arriving here in our spring. This migratory flight only takes a few days. Some researchers suggest that some birds do the journey in one non-stop flight. The birds depart Australia in late summer to return to their breeding grounds in the northern hemisphere.

Latham’s Snipe usually inhabit open freshwater wetlands with low, dense vegetation – swamps, bogs, dams, even roadside drains at times. It is an omnivorous species that uses its long bill to probe for seeds and invertebrates in the mud and shallow water.

Although not listed threatened in Victoria, in January this year, the Commonwealth’s Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act listed the Latham’s Snipe as Vulnerable. The main threat to the species is the loss of habitat, especially the modification of wetland areas by drainage and clearance for agricultural, residential and industrial development. The bushfires and droughts in Australia early this century contributed significantly to a dramatic decline in global numbers of Latham’s Snipe.

The bird has a reputation for being very shy and wary providing a challenge for early sporting shooters - and today’s photographers. Before bans on shooting were introduced in Victoria in 1984, the last state to do so, it is estimated that up to 6000 birds were shot annually in this state alone. In Russia, hunting for Latham’s Snipe still occurs today.

The bird’s recorded at Drouin recently inhabit some wet, tussocky pasture beside the Drouin Waste Water Treatment Plant in Settlement Rd. These paddocks have recently undergone some drainage works in preparation for residential development. Future sightings of Latham’s Snipe in this location are probably questionable.

100 Buln Buln Rd in Drouin is earmarked for a development of 400+ houses. The southern section is ideal Latham’s Snipe habitat!

 

Why value nature?

The argument goes …

Our economy is built on persistent growth. We continue to measure the health of our society by whether our GDP is growing. (GDP stands for gross domestic product. It is the monetary value of the final goods and services — that is, those that are bought by the final user — produced in a country in a given period of time - say a quarter or a year). Economists and most politicians measure the wellbeing of our society by tracking the growth of our GDP.

Some are now suggesting that measuring the health of our economy by focussing on GDP is leading to an environmental and human disaster. In fact, this is bleeding obvious.

An ever-growing economy requires an ever-growing supply of raw materials – natural resources. Dear old Earth however, only has a finite amount of these. Mother Nature is being abused and is struggling. In the constant pursuit of increasing profits and economic growth, corporations, developers and governments are exploiting our natural resources at the expense of biodiversity.

"Victorians could see an increased risk of fire this spring" - AFAC 

The result of this is we now have elevated global temperatures, monster storms and floods, out of control bushfires and an avalanche of species on the brink of extinction.

Once the habitat of the Australian Pipit and the Trim Sun-orchid

We need our leaders to stand up for the environment NOW. Nature, humanity, the planet  depends on it!

… just saying.

Further reading:

MSN News - We’re in debt to the Earth. How can we repay it?

Global Footprint Network.

UN - World Population Prospects 2024.

Trust for Nature - When we harm biodiversity, we’re harming ourselves. 

 

 

Ecocide

Most of us are probably familiar with terms such as suicide, homicide, infanticide, patricide, genocide and other similar terms for acts of atrocity, all of which have legal definitions that are recognised around the world.

In the 1970s, an American biologist, Arthur Galston, coined the term ‘ecocide’ in his campaign to stop the use of Agent Orange to defoliate large tracts of land during the Vietnam war.

More than twenty years later, Pauline ‘Polly’ Higgins, a Scottish barrister asked herself, “What would it take to create a legal duty of care for the Earth?” She saw the need to hold perpetrators to account for the long-term damage to the environment.

Over the years, various legal bodies in a wide number of countries have attempted to introduce laws to protect the natural environment from wilful destruction.

In June 2021, an independent panel of top international lawyers drafted a definition of ecocide: unlawful or wanton acts committed with knowledge that there is a substantial likelihood of severe and either widespread or long-term damage to the environment being caused by those acts. (This definition came 75 years after the terms ‘crimes against humanity’ and ‘genocide’ were coined at Nuremberg)

The definition is part of an ongoing effort by Stop Ecocide International to have the crime of ecocide recognized as the fifth core crime of the International Criminal Court.

It cannot be denied that our natural environment is being slowly devastated by the actions of developers, corporations AND governments (at all levels) with weak, compromised or unheeded rules or regulations.

Lane Cove Council's solution to an act of ecocide (Credit: The Guardian)

Australia is number 5 on the list of the world’s worst deforestation countries (the only western nation in the top 10) and we also have one of the highest rates of animal extinctions. In the meantime, our environment minister is struggling to produce legislation to establish an Environment Protection Agency.

Let’s hope our planet is resilient enough to survive.

 

Drouin's Kurrajongs

The Kurrajong, Brachychiton sp, is a tree indigenous to north-east Vic, eastern NSW and southern Qld. ‘Kurrajong’ is from the Dhurug language of Sydney and means ‘fishing line’. Koori nations used parts of the tree as a food source, basket weaving and for making rope and nets. In 1853, the Australian poet and playwright, Charles Harpur, wrote a play, The Bushranger, in which he referenced the bushranger character being ‘kurrajonged’ – hanged!

The bulbous trunk is the source of the alternative common name Bottle Tree. The swollen trunk consists of fleshy fibrous material which enables the tree to absorb water and help it through drought periods. Early botanists (and others) gave the tree various genus names over the years. ‘Brachychiton’ is Greek: ‘brachys’ = 'short', and ‘chiton’ = 'tunic', a reference to the loose seed coats

Originally there were seven Kurrajongs planted as nature strip shade trees in Princes Way (west), between numbers 214 and 226. They were planted some time between 1950 and 1970. Recently, one tree was removed after being hit by an out of control vehicle. Even more recently, another has suffered significant wind damage.

The Kurrajong makes a good urban, streetside tree. It is a hardy species that tolerates a variety of soils and can survive long drought periods. It provides shade and habitat and seldom grows more than 10-15m tall. The Kurrajong makes a fantastic feature tree for small gardens too.

 

 

 

Bird flu: should we be concerned?

In a word, yes!

Some simple bird flu facts:

• Bird flu, or avian influenza, is mostly spread among wild water-bird species.
• Bird flu is caused by viruses similar to the seasonal flu viruses in humans.
• Like human influenza, there are a number of known strains of bird flu.
• Some strains of bird flu can jump species (called spillover) into mammals such as seals, livestock and even humans.
• A particularly virulent strain of bird flu, H5N1, has recently spread rapidly across the globe.

Taking samples from a dead Sea Lion in Peru Credit: The Guardian  

The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) have reported that since April this year, 191 dairy herds in thirteen U.S. states have confirmed cases of avian influenza A(H5N1) virus infections in dairy cows. The USDA also report that since April this year, there have been A(H5) detections in 35 commercial poultry flocks and 21 backyard flocks, for a total of 18.68 million birds affected.

Several strains of bird flu were detected in Victorian poultry flocks in June this year. The latest report from Agriculture Victoria suggests that the outbreak is now under control and no further cases have been detected. In May this year, the Victorian Department of Health reported that a child returning from India was detected with H5N1. The patient has made a full recovery.

Australian ecologists and conservationists are warning that H5N1 could reach here this spring when migratory seabirds arrive. In a speech to the Zoo and Aquarium Association on the 6^th August, Tanya Plibersek, Minister for the Environment and Water, said, “High Pathogenicity Avian Influenza or Avian Flu is something that the government is taking very seriously and preparing for. Because the new H5 variant is coming for us.”

While the transference to humans is not very likely in this country, we should be concerned for our wild bird population. Swans, Pelicans, ducks and waterfowl will be particularly vulnerable.

The World Organisation for Animal Health reports that recent mass mortality events attributed to bird flu include: Germany, 2020, 3000 Red Knots; Israel, 2021-22, 8000 Eurasian Cranes; Peru, 2022, 100,000+ wild birds; Chile, 2022, 4000+ Sea Lions.

In March this year, populations of  Adélie Penguins and Skuas were devastated when a deadly strain of bird flu had already reached Antarctica (WARNING: some images are disturbing).

Adelie Penguin Credit: Wikipedia                       Skua Credit: National Audubon Society

Despite Minister Plibersek’s declaration that the government is preparing for bird flu this spring, I fear we can but watch, wait and hope.

 

 

Native grass lawn

We probably got our penchant for lawns and nature strips that rival a bowling green as a hangover from early settler days when the English aristocracy arrived and wanted to emulate their sweeping green landscaped lawn tended to by a phalanx of gardeners. If we stop and think about that, it is the antithesis of the Australian landscape.

Credit: Open Art & Sydney Morning Herald

The ‘English’ lawn is (usually) fertilizer-hungry, weed-prone, thirsty, invasive and a virtual biological wasteland. It is hard to understand why we have grown up caring so dutifully for our lawns with fertilizer, water, weedicide, etc. just so that at the weekend we can get the mower out, make it look like a golf-green for a few days, then do it all again a week later. And, don’t get me started on the synthetic petro-chemical lawns that are beginning to appear!

There are some native grasses that are very worthy lawn substitutes.

Native grasses are adapted to our climate and soils. Often, native grasses are drought tolerant and they certainly require less watering. Usually they are hardy and require much less maintenance. You might have to forgo the bowling green look however. Some species have coloured foliage. Some have attractive seed heads and flowers. Native grasses look great with patches of native wildflowers amongst them.

Kangaroo Grass, Themeda triandra, is a widespread native grass that tolerates a variety of climates and soils and is particularly drought-tolerant. The seed heads are a favourite food of finches and other seed eating birds. Kangaroo Grass can get to 90cm tall and is not especially suited for traffic areas – great for nature strips. Can be mown to about 4-5cm a couple of times per year.

Weeping Grass, Microlaena stipoides, is probably the best native grass for maintaining the appearance of a traditional close-cropped lawn. It grows well in this district, doesn’t mind full sun or partial shade and is happy to grow under trees. Weeping Grass is a fantastic host for a variety of butterfly larvae.

Credit: Plant Tiles Australia

Kidney Grass, Dichondra repens, was once called Kidney Weed but I think the horticulturists discovered the name proved to be off-putting. It has a ground-hugging, mat-forming habit and is suitable for low-traffic areas. Kidney Grass is often used in conjunction with pavers or mulch paths for foot traffic. Rarely needs mowing.

Other species to investigate include Bothriochloa macra, Festuca sp, Lomandra sp, Viola hederacea, Pultenaea sp …

The Baw Baw Shire website has a link to a list of ‘approved’ plantings for nature strips that you might find interesting.

Out with the lawn – in with the grasses (and the wildflowers, ground covers, orchids …)

 

 

 

Eleven degrees - eucalypts and climate change

Research by the National Environmental Research Program shows that most eucalypts grow best at an optimal temperature of 11°C. Above or below 11°C, eucalypts grow more slowly. Large trees in particular are affected most. As growth rates drop, trees will recover more slowly from bushfire and landscapes will be transformed for ever.

Below 11°C, the trees’ growth is slowed by a reduced metabolic rate. Above 11°C increased rates of evaporation and respiration result in reduced growth.

The Australian Conservation Foundation MyClimate Tool indicates that Drouin’s average daily maximum temperature from 1960-1990 was 19°C. The prediction for Drouin in 2050 is for the average daily maximum temperature to be 1·6°C hotter. Some areas within Australia will experience predicted increases of more than 4°C and the ‘winter’ season will virtually disappear.

The European Union’s Copernicus Climate Change Service just announced that Sunday 21^st July 2024 was the world’s hottest day since the 1940’s. DEECA and the CSIRO predict that Gippsland rainfall will continue to decline and that by 2050, Traralgon’s climate will be more like the current climate of Bairnsdale.

All types of eucalypt forest are under threat by rising global temperatures and reduced rainfall. Let’s hope that nature can adapt.  

 

 

New BBS policy to manage trees

At the council meeting 3^rd July, both a Tree Management Plan and a Tree Policy document were adopted. You can download both documents from the BBS website.

Mayor Cr Annemarie McCabe: “Trees play a vital role in creating healthy, thriving and sustainable communities throughout Baw Baw,” she said.  “They improve the physical and mental health of individuals and families, hold cultural significance and support environmental sustainability. Baw Baw Shire aims to balance the management of trees on Council land with these sentiments in mind, while ensuring the safety of community members and infrastructure.”

Brooker Park Warragul

The Tree Management Plan covers the management of trees that are alongside roads and paths managed by Council, in Council managed open space and, in the vicinity of electric lines where Council is responsible for the clearance of trees. The Plan also establishes a clear set of guidelines for Council and the community. 

McNeilly Park Drouin

The Tree Management Policy will become the overarching document informing how Council manages it's urban and rural trees, while also outlining Council’s position and legal requirements for tree management. 

Princes Way Drouin

The motion to adopt the two documents was moved by Cr Kostos and seconded by Cr Cook who both praised the officers for preparing the detail in the plan and the policy and both pointed out the positive feedback from the community.

It is envisaged (hoped?) that the two ‘documents’ might provide some protection for one of this shire’s most valuable assets – its trees.

Performance though is the only valid test.

 

Habitat tree conservation

Habitat tree: “A standing live or dead tree providing ecological niches (microhabitats) such as cavities, bark pockets, large dead branches, epiphytes, cracks, sap runs, trunk rot and root substrate for fungi and soil biota.”

Researchers say around 300 species of native Australian animals rely on tree hollows for their survival. 13% of terrestrial amphibians need hollows in trees. 10% of our reptiles, 15% of native birds and a whopping 31% of our mammals make use of tree hollows for breeding, refuge or protection (Gibbons and Lindenmayer). Close to 100 species of our threatened wildlife are hollow-dependant.

The Gang-gang Cockatoo, now threatened, is hollow dependant

Our iconic eucalypt species are great at forming hollows but many take over one hundred years to form significant cavities. Large old trees are better at sequestering carbon too. Consequently, our oldest trees and our dead trees are the most valuable trees.

Our state and federal governments recognize the values habitat trees provide to forest biodiversity. The Victorian Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act lists the loss of hollow-bearing trees as a threatening process. The ‘loss of hollow-bearing trees in native forests and woodlands due to ecologically unsustainable forestry practices’ is listed as a key threatening process by the Australian Government’s Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water.

Healthy urban tree cover should include old and dead trees too. Yes, old and dead trees can present an unacceptable risk in some urban situations but it should be obligatory for urban planners to take this into account and not allow development to encroach too close to such important ecological components. Conservation of habitat trees should be an integral part of local government tree policies.

It’s time we stopped cutting down our old and dead trees!

Day length and the plant kingdom

Happy winter solstice – shortest day of the year. This is mid-winter and from here the days will be getting longer.

The plants worked this out eons ago. Because plants need sunlight for photosynthesis, daylight is essential for a plant’s growth. During photosynthesis in green plants, light energy is captured and used to convert water, carbon dioxide, and minerals into oxygen and energy-rich organic compounds.

Plants respond to day length by adapting to seasonal changes – photoperiodism. Some animals too react to day length by hibernating, migrating or changing the colours of their feathers or fur.

Many plants contain a protein that can sense changes in day length. Plants react and adapt to changes in day length by altering their flowering time. Root and stem growth as well as leaf retention can be affected by photoperiodism in most plants.

Some plants are ‘long day’ plants and prefer to flower as the days get longer. Others are ‘short day’ plants and like to flower during winter.

Hakea 'Burrendong Beauty' in a Drouin garden

Many of our native plants are ‘short day’ species. Plenty of native gardens have correas, hakeas, grevilleas, etc. that are in flower at the moment.

Common Heath at Lang Lang

Go for a walk in many of our reserves at this time of year and you will most likely come across examples of Victoria’s floral emblem, Common Heath, in full bloom.

Fungi at Uralla reserve Trafalgar

And of course many members of the fungi kingdom are up and about right now too.

 

Fly Agaric

The Fly Agaric mushroom, Aminata muscaria, is a large, white-gilled mushroom with white spots on a red cap (usually but not always).

Amanita muscaria is an introduced species in Australia, and there are concerns that it may be spreading at the expense of native fungal species. It is almost always found growing in close proximity to introduced tree species such as oaks, birches and pines.

‘Agaric’ is from the Latin agaricum and/or the Greek agarikon which means ‘tree fungus’. The late Middle English, ‘agaryke’ is for a kind of mushroom used for medicinal purposes. Apparently, it was an early European tradition to crush the caps and mix them with milk to attract flies. When the flies drank the milk containing the dissolved mushroom toxin, they died.

Although death is rare in humans from ingestion of the Fly Agaric, in most references it is listed as both poisonous and psychoactive. Symptoms of poisoning include nausea, vomiting, dizziness, hallucinations, involuntary movements, delirium and seizures. The Fly Agaric is in the same genus as the Death Cap mushroom, Aminata phalloides.

One of the issues with the Fly Agaric is its attractiveness to children. It is often used in fairytales and children’s cartoons. There are recorded cases of children being poisoned by eating this toxic fungus.

Pretty but deadly.

 

What’s happened to our promised stronger EPBC Act?

In 2019-20, an  independent review of the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act declared, “Australia’s natural environment and iconic places are in an overall state of decline and are under increasing threat. The environment is not sufficiently resilient to withstand current, emerging or future threats, including climate change. The environmental trajectory is currently unsustainable.” Further, the review conducted by Professor Graeme Samuel and an expert panel concluded that, “The EPBC Act and its operation requires fundamental reform”.

In 2022, with the election of the new Labor Government, conservationists became optimistic at some new promises by the Minister for the Environment and Water, Tanya Plibersek, when she said Labor would fix Australia’s broken environmental protections and put a stop to extinction of native species.

Southern Brown Bandicoot: Endangered - EPBC Act since 2015

A December 2022 media statement from the minister asserts, “Australia’s environment laws are broken” and “…the EPBC Act is outdated and requires fundamental reform”.

In a new Nature Positive Plan the minister has promised, “…stronger laws”, “ a new Environment Protection Agency”, “A target of zero new extinctions”, et al.

Gang-gang Cockatoo: Endangered - EPBC Act since 2022

At a media conference in April this year, Minister Plibersek could not guarantee that the broader package of environment laws would be introduced before the next election which is due some time in the last half of next year.

Strzelecki Gum: Vulnerable - EPBC Act since 2016 

In the meantime, let’s hope our threatened flora, fauna and fungi can survive encroaching climate change and political procrastination?

Trees and climate change - again

Carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and chlorofluorocarbons are the principal human-produced greenhouse gases in our atmosphere. Carbon dioxide, CO₂, is our planet’s most important greenhouse gas. CO₂ in the atmosphere is responsible for more than half the rise in global temperatures.

The amount of CO₂ in the atmosphere is still rising rapidly. Atmospheric CO₂ levels have been recorded at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii for more than 60 years. The latest results from Mauna Loa show that the monthly average of CO₂ in the atmosphere for March 2024 was 425·38 ppm. In March 2023 it was 420·99 ppm.

Atmospheric concentrations of CO₂ are rising mostly because of the fossil fuels, that we are still burning.

All plants absorb CO₂. They use it to produce oxygen (which we breathe) and carbohydrates (which the plants use for energy and growth). It would seem obvious then, that to slow global warming we simply need to plant more trees and that would certainly help but there are some provisos.

First, to plant enough trees globally to absorb enough carbon, it is estimated that an area equivalent to nearly one and half times the size of Australia would be required. It would have to be land that could support the growth of forests – not desert and not snow-covered peaks, etc. Much of the land would have to be arable land that is needed for farming to feed an increasing global population.

When a tree dies, or burns, its carbon is returned to the atmosphere. Planting huge numbers of new trees might mean more trees die, or burn, thus adding to the problem. Different forest types sequester different amounts of carbon. Where the trees are planted becomes important too – generally, tropical forests take up more carbon than forests in temperate zones.

United Nations Climate Action warns: “Ocean habitats such as seagrasses and mangroves, along with their associated food webs, can sequester carbon dioxide from the atmosphere at rates up to four times higher than terrestrial forests can.”

There are many unanswered questions and despite new research that suggest terrestrial plants absorb more CO₂ than we first thought, it is still agreed that we cannot plant enough trees to slow climate change without reducing our emissions.

 

Spotted Gums make great urban trees

The Spotted Gum, Corymbia maculata, is one eucalypt that is easy to identify. And yes, it is a eucalypt despite the ‘corymbia’ part of its scientific name – corymbia and angophora are now considered as sub-genera of the eucalypt group. Korymbus is Greek for bunches of flowers or fruit and maculatus is Latin for spotted.

Spotted Gums in Princes Way Drouin

The Spotted Gum is endemic to south-east Australia, from south-east Qld to southern NSW. There is a disjunct population near Orbost in Victoria.

Spotted Gums are frequently used for urban plantings. They are attractive, grow straight, easy to establish and they tolerate poor urban conditions and have few lower branches to obstruct views.

When Spotted Gums replace their bark each season, they do it in patches, giving rise to the recognisable spots that can vary from green to tan to grey over time. Spotted Gums often flower profusely, attracting nectar-seeking birds, insects and mammals. Their broad, dense canopies provide shade and shelter and add beauty.

Musk and Rainbow Lorikeets love Drouin's Spotted Gums

Once credited with being ‘limb-droppers’, Spotted Gum varieties are now bred to minimize this characteristic.

C.maculata can grow large. Old Blotchy, ‘the world’s largest Spotted Gum’ at Termeil in NSW is 59m tall, has a trunk girth of 10·7m and is estimated to be over 400 years old.

As urban planners look toward planting more resilient trees to help mitigate the effects of a warming world, they could do a lot worse than choose the beautiful and rewarding Spotted Gum.

Some introduced avian ‘pests’

The Friends of Drouin’s Trees is in the middle of its autumn bird surveys for 2024. This might be the time to investigate the history and habits of some of our introduced bird species we call ‘ferals’.

In the mid nineteenth century in Australia and New Zealand acclimatisation societies were established to introduce exotic animals and plants. The much-vaunted Ferdinand von Meuller, Victoria’s first government botanist, was alone responsible for ‘distributing’ thousands of introduced plants and seeds! In its short life of just 11 years from 1861 to 1872, the Victorian Acclimatisation Society played a devastating role in this state’s ecology.

SPARROW

The very cosmopolitan House Sparrow was introduced to Victoria in the late 1860s. This little bird thrives wherever there is human habitation – farms, granaries, school yards, town squares, etc. It is a very sociable and gregarious species. The House Sparrow competes with native birds for food and nesting sites. Many references suggest the sparrow is host to a large number of parasites and diseases.

STARLING

The scientific name Sturnus vulgaris is very appropriate for this boisterous and aggressive introduced bird. Starlings are native to northern Europe where they are a migratory species. Here, they seem to have lost the need to migrate and might perform some seasonal local movements only. Their preference for cavities in buildings and trees for their nesting sites is perhaps their worst feature. Starlings quickly drive away native birds that are hollow-dependent for their breeding regimes. They were introduced in the vain hope of keeping pest insects under control. English starlings were introduced in the eastern states from 1863 onwards.

MYNA

Mynas and starlings are related – they belong to the Sturnidae family. The Common Myna was introduced to Melbourne in circa 1860 to help control caterpillars in market gardens. They were only partly successful and soon spread to other areas as well as being ‘shipped’ to north Queensland to control pests in sugar cane. Mynas seldom occupy places with dense vegetation, preferring open areas of parklands, streets, back yards, etc. In 2000, the Common Myna was listed among 100 of the world’s worst invasive species by the World Conservation Union. A nation-wide survey in Australia in 2005 placed the myna at number one pest – ahead of the Cane Toad, rabbit, feral cat, etc. Like starlings, mynas aggressively defend their territories and nesting sites, driving off native birds.

DOVE

The Spotted Dove was introduced in Melbourne in the 1860’s principally for aesthetic reasons. Their native range is the Indian sub-continent and south-east Asia. Some references suggest the Spotted Dove is not a pest to the degree of others in this list. It is believed to have displaced the native Peaceful Dove in some districts but now itself is considered to be ‘under pressure’ from the native Crested Pigeon which seems to be expanding its range. When they drink they only need to place their bill in water. They sort of inhale the water, using their bill like a straw. Other birds need to lift their heads after they take a drink so they can swallow water, but not doves and pigeons.

BLACKBIRD

Pioneers to Victoria found the birdsong of the native species unfamiliar and alien. Wealthy early settlers regarded blackbirds to be a worthy addition to their European-style gardens, principally for their song. The bird quickly spread throughout the state. Even today it is pretty much the most abundant bird in Melbourne and although mainly found in urban areas it is not unusual to see blackbirds in native bushland settings these days. The Common Blackbird is thought to be the principal vector for the spread of the invasive species Sweet Pittosporum.

GOLDFINCH

The European Goldfinch is a small bird in the finch family that is native to Europe, North Africa, and western and central Asia. In Victoria it was introduced in several locations in the late nineteenth century. Apparently, many of these introductions failed, but now the bird is well established, particularly in ‘wasteland’ areas on urban edges. Overseas, the bird is often called the Thistle Bird because of its preference for the seeds of the thistle plant. Goldfinches like to line their nests with mosses, lichens and plant down from thistles.